A Chronology of the Silk Road Estimated 500 BC - 14Th Century Emergence Maritime Trading Routes

China and the Silk Road - Earliest Development of Civilization and Overland Trade with the West

The origins of China and the Chinese go as far back as 5000 years before Christ, or more. Evidence of inhabitation in the era of 10.000 BC, at the end of the new Stone Age (neolithicum), can be found at Helan Pass in Ningxia Autonomous Region, and along the Northern Mountain Borders of Xinjiang-Uygur Autonomous Region, in current day Gansu Province as well as in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.

In these early ages the Western Regions of what today is China were already populated, as well documented archeoligical finds have proven. These were however very primitive and dark tribal times, with men living in close contact with nature as hunter-gatherers. There population was very sparse, there was no agriculture and thus there were no cities. Small groups of People moved about on Foot.

In the succeeding period the earliest Chinese civilizations were primitive societies which had just developed agricultural skills and had invented such primitive tools & pottery. The first complete societies only arose at around 5000 BC. In China these societies/tribes were located in the lower reaches of the Yellow River, counted many more citizens and spawned the first true villages and cities.

Similar to early civilizations elsewhere in the world, they knew of no script at first.

Through the emergence of what could be recognized as the true earliest interactions along Trade Routes that would later emerge as the famous Silk Road, from this point the early Chinese would move remarkably quickly on the ladder of inventions and civilization. As the Science of Archeology figures at up to now, the first true intercultural contacts in the far western regions (Xinjiang, Taklamakan Desert, Hexi Corridor of Gansu Province) were established after the invention of the wheel combined with the domestication of horses. Although human migration and contacts reach far further back to the dawn of the species, itself. Beforehand small bands of humans had walked the distance, only to settle and henceforth keep to themselves. Many 1000's of Years passed until the invention of the horse-drawn carriage (Chariot) made rapid transportation over large distances possible for the first Time in Human History. It was a great tool for war, travel

and transport. According to various intriguing finds done further West in the Tarim River Basin, this new Era,

estimated around 3500 years ago saw the dawn of the first small scale trade routes (nothing of the scale of trade

the later Silk Road saw) in Central Asia stretching into Taklamakan Desert which in time led to large scale cultural

and economic exchanges.

himself to the domestication of all farm animals of the early civilization. Among them small horses, the cow, goat and others.

Summarized the legends explain mythically and romantically how the first inventions and developments had been made, and how the first agricultural civilization with script came into being in the yellow river basin of China. From there it would spread into an ever larger territory and would be touched by many cultures and peoples and idea's.

Although wrapped in Legends of history, the mentioned archeological finds do underwrite the development of early sedentary civilization in China at around 6- to 5000 years BC. The most well-known find is found on the outskirts of present day Xi'an in Shaanxi Province, a city that would later remain at the center of early civilization and was home to the Capital of Han and Tang Dynasties. Here the Ban Po neolithic village gives a good insight into what the dawn of Civilization in the far east on the eur-asian continent was like. Other sites include those near Yangshao Village in Henan Province, the Shandong Province Longshan Culture finds and even some finds at Wanfujing in Beijing, Hebei Province.

The China of the earliest dynasties was nothing like that early China of 5 or 6 thousand years ago, just as today's China does not much resemble the China of the Feudal Ming Dynasty or even Ching Dynasty. However, recorded history and script start with the Shang Dynasty. In the process of further building their civilization, the structure of the state, the size of the state and

its territory, the people, ethnic groups, food, habits and culture all changed numerous of times, to end up as today's customs, China, Chinese people and culture. In this process the Silk Road pathways and the Culture and Technology they carried played a pivotal role.

The centralized state, only distantly similar to today's political situation, developed somewhere in the 3rd century BC and was first truly established and developed by the Chin Shi Huangdi and his short-lived Chin Dynasty. Slowly a feudal system as we know it evolved, through several stages. As Time advanced, each Dynasty would have its own power-structure and organization, depending on needs, philosophic and technical developments. The better organized, the more powerful militarily.

The Chinese Culture and Territory had expanded and united under the Ch'in and although it disintegrated several times, the Chinese Culture Area would keep expanding in all directions.

An obviously non-Chinese but western-made Map of the Ching Dynasty Chinese Empire in the year 1910 AD, a year in which China's sovereignty has been under threat and siege for over 70 years.

In this Map of 1910 AD, made one year before the abdication of Last Ching Emperor Xuan Tung (a.k.a.Aisin-Gioro Pu Yi) and the final end of China's Feudal History, China is depicted as in its smallest boundaries and definition. Most notably Manchuria, and Inner Mongolia, both territories nominally under Chinese Control and under Chinese Sovereignty are depicted as separate area's.

Other interesting features of the Map and geography of the Time : after the Sino-Japanese war of 1899 AD, both Korea and the Island of Formosa (now Taiwan / ROC) have been annexed by the Japanese Empire.

From the Warring States Period to the Ch'In and Han Dynasties :

10Th Century BC: King Mu (Reign 976 BC to c.922 BC) of the early Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC to 256 BC) is the Chinese person known to have traveled on Silk Road. King Mu of Zhou is counted among the most succesful of Zhou Rulers and during his Reign period the surface area of the Zhou State reached its largest size, expanding the territories from the Lower reaches of the Yellow River far into the West and South. Accoring to record, during his reign period the King traveled some 90.000 kilometers, reaching the Kunlun Mountains (Kunlun Shan) in far Western China.

A Schematic Map of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan (TeMuJin) and descendants through its several stages of conquest in its short but Impressive Existance in History. Timeline depicts the Mongol Conquest starting in the Year 1206 AD, when Genghis Khan first united the Mongol-Turkic Tribes of Mongolia and Lake BayKal becoming Great Khan. The Timeline continues through the year 1219 AD, the year 1223 AD taking Transoxiania, 1227 AD, 1237 AD when the Northern Jin Dynasty of China was annihilated, 1259 AD conquering ancient China above the Jiangste River and 1279 AD when all of China was taken and the Yuan Dynasty Established under the Kublai Khan. Last is the Year 1294 AD when the

AD 906-1279: The Silk Road of the Sung Dynasty and the Mongol Empire.

1206 AD: Mongolian tribes unify and begin to conquer Asia under the rule of Genghis Khan.

1207 AD and 1210 AD : The first Mongol Invasions against Western Xia (Xi Xia) and Uygur-Turks.

1220 AD: Genghis Khan captures Khotan, part of what is known as the Western Xia Empire or Xi Xia.

1245 AD - 1247 AD John of Pian de Carpine, becomes the First of the three famed European Travelers of the Time to travel Eastwards along the trade roads of Central Asia, ending up at (Karakoram) Ulaanbataar in Mongolia.

1253 AD - 1255 AD William of Rubruck travels from West to East along the Silk Road to Karakoram ( Ulaanbataar) in Mongolia.

500 BC : Ancient Greek Society becomes familiar with the knowledge of Silk and Silk Cloth. The Silk must have been traded from China along various long land-bound and overseas trade routes.

Not much later the Roman Empire starts its ascent. In Rome Silk Robes worn become a sign of the Aristrocacy. At Times, the prices of a Silk soar, making Silk more valuable than Gold in the Roman realms (300 BC to 300 AD).

333 BC: Alexander the Great of Macedon (Macedonia) (Life 356 BC – 323 BC) crosses into asia

minor with an army of 40.000 Men and allied Tribes starting a conquest that leads to the rapid

6 BC-AD 5: Han Dynasty loses control of Tarim Basin to Huns. The Silk Road is blocked.

1st c. AD: Kushan people (descendents of the Yüeh-chih) move to Tarim, introducing Gandharan culture to region.

68 AD: Han Emperor Ming Ti sends Cai Yin to the west; Yin returns with 2 Buddhist monks.

73 AD: Chinese general Pan Ch’ao (under Ming Ti) reconquers the Tarim Basin.

92 AD : Final Defeat of the Xiong-Nu Tribes by Han Dynasty Armies under leadership of Ban Chao and General Dou Xian. The Western Regions are made into a protectorate of the Han Dynasty.

Re-opening of the Silk Trading Routes through the West under the Han Dynasty.

100 AD : After 400 Years of existance as an independant City Kingdom with its own Culture and Language, the City of Hotan (Hotien/Khotan) in the Western Taklamakan Desert (Xinjiang-Uygur AR) becomes a Chinese Tributary State, A Vasal Kingdom and Ally of the Han Dynasty.

144 AD -173 AD: Kanishka, a powerful patron of Mahâyâna Buddhism, is King of the Kushana dynasty in India (their capital at Taxila).

166 AD: Han Emperor Huan formally introduces Buddhism to China in palace ceremonies.

After AD 220: Chinese control over Tarim Basin weakens as Hun invasions and local revolts widen; silk trade increasingly uses sea route but, 2 sites (Lou-lan and another near Niya River) provide evidence that the towns along the land route continued to trade and be influenced by East and West.

115 BC: Han Dynasty Emperor Wu Ti forces the Huns to retreat to the north of the Taklamakan Desert. Afterwards, the Han construct a first version of the Great Wall of China extension to the West, in protection of the Silk Road. The Han Dynasty Great Wall reaches at least as far West as JiaYu Pass (JiaYuGuan City) in the Hexi Corrdior of Western Gansu province. Later, the Ming Dynasty Great Wall of China, which also served in protection of the Silk Road trading routes in Central Asia would end at JiaYu Pass, where a Great Fortress of JiaYuGuan was constructed in 1372 AD.

In 115 BC Zhang Quian is sent on a second diplomatic mission to the West, this time destined for Daxia and Parthia (North Persia) on the Far Western Silk Road. As a result Diplomatic Missions from The far West are sent in Honor to the Han Dynasty Court at Chang'An (Xi'An), the beginning of enduring dimplomatic relations with these far western Nations, India and Persia.

1271 AD : Pope Gregory meets the Polo Brothers in Jerusalem after their first Journey to Cathay (China).

1272 AD : Marco Polo joins on a papal diplomatic mission to the Court of the Kublai Khan at Khanbalik (Beijing) in Cathay, the Far East. The Route in China leads through Kashgar, south around the Taklamakan Desert via Dunhuang into the Hexi Corridor. On his way Marco Polo visits the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang and the Big Buddha Temple of Zhangye, which are later recorded in his book. Khanbalik is reached in 1374 AD, when Marco Polo meets the Yuan Emperor Kublai Khan at the Court.

1293/1294 AD : Marco Polo and the Brothers are finally allowed to leave the Service of the Kublai Khan, finally arriving back through the fast emerging Maritime Silk Road to Venice. Later Marco Polo will write his memoirs of the travels, his book "Il Millione" while stuck in a Jail.

1334 AD : Moroccan Traveler Ibn Battuta (complete: Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta) travels in East-Asia, South-East Asia and China. Although Battuta does not travel by the land route of the Silk Road into China due to the detail of his recorded observations, he is considered one of the International Explorers to first reveal and transmit the wonders of China to the West, in fact outdoing his near contemporary, Marco Polo the Venetian.

On his travels Ibn Battuta visited Vietnam before entering the Yuan Dynasty Empire of China through the Pacific Port City of Quanzhou, today located in Fujian Province. From Quanzhou -dubbed the city of donkeys- in the Book of his Travel accounts, Ibn Battuta followed the course of the Grand Canal through Hangzhou (Zhejiang Province) which, according to the accounts of Ibn Battuta, was the largest city in the world at that time. As described in the Book "The Journey" (or A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling - تحفة النظار في غرائب الأمصار وعجائب الأسفاit ر ) took him three days to walk across the city. From Hangzhou, the journey led to Beijing (although there is some discussion on whether Battuta really reached Beijing, in his book he complements the City for its cleanliness).

1362 AD: Mongolian Empire begins to decline. In 1368 AD China is finally lost to the crumbling Mongol Empire.

1368 AD: Ming Dynasty forces drive the last loyalist troops of the Yuan Dynasty and Mongol Tribes out of Chinese Territory via the JiaYuGuan Pass. The Ming Dynasty is officially established under the Hong Wu Emperor. In 1372 AD, the JiaYu Pass and Last Gate in the West on the Silk Road sees the beginning of the construction of JiaYuGuan Fortress, a citadel only completed by 1539 AD. Although the Silk Road is protected the Chinese Nation is overwhelmed by a dictatorial Dynasty that decrees an isolationist policy. Eventually the Ming will wind up closing land route to west, ending large scale operations on the Chinese Silk Road.

1865 - 1874 AD : The "Dungang" Islamic revolts (or Hui Minorities' War, or the Muslim Rebellion) once more temporarily turned Hotan into independent Muslim hands (a time during which the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang were vandalized!). A few years thereafter Hotan briefly became part of the short-lived state known as East Turkestan.

1872/73 AD: Buchara Khanate becomes part of the expanding Russian Empire in East-Asia.

1875 AD: Dungang / Hui Minorities are removed from the Hexi Corridor in Gansu and resettled in the South-West of the Province in order to prevent contact between the Muslim groups and

5th-6th century AD: Silk Road traffic increases along with Buddhist influence, with 2 million Buddhists in China by 514 AD. The Gandharan Kingdom extinguished by Hephtalite (White Hun) invasions.

552 AD : Nestorian Monks succeed in smuggling out Silk Worms from the Chinese Empire. After a perilous journey the Monks present the Silk Worms and spied technology to Justinian, Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople (current day Istanbul). Delighted the Emperor orders the creation of Royal Silk Farms and silk weaving factories.

This is the first Time the Chinese Monopoly on Silk Cultivation and production technologies has been broken.

Chinese Silks remain however the highest in quality and Silk Road Trade continues uninterrupted.

589 AD: Chinese regions reunite (Sui Dynasty).

618 AD -906 AD: T’ang Dynasty expands westward in a “forward policy” that spread its power farther into Central Asia than ever before.

630 AD : In about 630 AD Hsüan-tsang (Xuan Zhang) travels through Lanzhou on the Yellow River and JiaYuGuan & Pass to Dunhuang, where he leaves the Jade Gate to along the Silk Road to India.

Many Years Later he will return to translate his Buddhist Scripture collection and become a Master of Buddhism. In Xi'An he writes Hsi Yu Chi. The Tang Dynasty sees a popular rise of Buddhism and much political intrigue, all favoring Buddhism in Tang China.

The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas are heavily utilized by Buddhist monks, nuns, and worshippers, with considerable T’ang art work added.

Late T’ang-Ming Dynasties:

8th century AD: Islamic conversions begin to spread in Central Asia.

The Path of the Silk Road in Asia and China :

The Silk Road was a transcontinental trading path connecting Asia, Entire, North Africa and Europe.

Countries connected through the main pathways of the land-bound Silk Road are China, Kyrgyzstan,Afghanistan, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Kazachstan, Turkmenistan, Tibet, India, Syria, Iran,Iraq, Egypt (Cairo and Alexandria), Turkey, Italy (Rome).

Apart from the Main Route there are several parallel pathways traversing North around the Caspian Sea and along the Eastern Shores of the Black Sea. Today these territories include the countries of Azerbaidjan, Armenia (ancient part of Persia), Georgia and parts of Ukraine and Russia.

In the South-East ran another minor Silk Road pathway, best identified as the South route of the Silk Road from China to India. This trade route included the Nations of China (Yunnan Province), Myanmar (Bhurma), Tibet (Autonomous Region of China).

Pre'- History of the Silk Road:

3000 BC : According to various archeological finds, among which murals and depictions, as well as ancient silk cloth and threads derived from Tombs and Mummies and ancient burial jade inscriptions, the earliest cultivation and weaving of Silk takes place at around 3000 BC. Possibly already in the Late Stone-Age, around 10 to 8000 BC primitive peoples in Eastern Asia already knew how to derive fibers from the Silk Worm, however this reamins uncertain.

Silk Reeling and Silk Weaving were original Chinese Inventions.

4000 BC : In Chinese Folklore and Saga, around 4000 BC one of the 3 Old Sages, the Yellow Emperor, is said to have introduced Silk Worm cultivation by use of the Mulberry Tree and taught the Chinese People how to make Silk.

1600 BC - 1100 BC : Complete knowledge of "Silk Technology", farming, extraction and weaving are available during the Shang Dynasty Era.

712 AD: Kuteybeh Ibn Muslim conquers west Turkestan including Khotan; probable

destruction of Buddhist temples at Khotan.

845 AD : Persecution of Buddhists by Muslims begins. Anti-Buddhist movement of the 9th century: 4,600 temples reported to be destroyed, with 260,500 monks and nuns defrocked. Large Scale Vandalism of Buddhist Statues at LongMen Caves, near LuoYang in Henan Province.

906 AD: Fall of T’ang Dynasty; rise of Five Dynasties (AD 907-960).

9th-10th c.: Silk Road traffic and Khotan both decline as Buddism begins to wane. Arabs take over

Silk Road trade domains and start acting as middlemen, raising prices. As a result the Maritime Routes, the“Sea Silk Route” to China become more economically attractive.

1006 AD to 1165 AD, the Western Taklamakan Desert City and former Chinese Vasal State, the City of Hotan falls into the hands of the advancing Muslim Kara-Khanid Khanate arising in the West.

The Silk Road southern path along the Taklamakan Desert falls out of control of the Han Chinese.